References
1.DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS FIFTH EDITION DSM-5(p.481, p.482, p.483, p.484, p.487, p.509, p.521,p.522, p.524 p.541, p.561)
2.UNODC World Drug Report 2023 warns of converging crises as illicit drug markets continue to expand
3.Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND. Dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex in addiction: neuroimaging findings and clinical implications. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2011;12(11):652-669. doi:10.1038/nrn3119
4.Jones CM, Bekheet F, Park JN, Alexander GC. The evolving overdose epidemic: synthetic opioids and rising stimulant-related harms. Epidemiol Rev. 2020; 42(1): 154-166.
5.Land ME, Wetzel M, Geller RJ, Steck AR, Grunwell JR. Adult opioid poisonings by drug, intent, and resource use from the United States National Poison Data System from 2005–2018. Clin Toxicol. 2021; 59(2): 142-151.
6.Sneader W. The discovery of heroin. Lancet. 1998; 352(9141): 1697-1699
7.Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C. Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. Lancet. 2007; 369(9566): 1047-1053
8.Blanco C, Wiley TRA, Lloyd JJ, Lopez MF, Volkow ND. America's opioid crisis: the need for an integrated public health approach. Transll Psychiatry. 2020; 10(1): 1-13.
9.Jones CM. Syringe services programs: An examination of legal, policy, and funding barriers in the midst of the evolving opioid crisis in the U.S. Int J Drug Policy. 2019; 70: 22-32
10.Gottεs A, Ψiestad EL, Boix F, et al. Levels of heroin and its metabolites in blood and brain extracellular fluid after i.v. heroin administration to freely moving rats. Br J Pharmacol. 2013; 170(3): 546-556
11.Cheng MY, Chin SC, Chang YC, et al. Different routes of heroin intake cause various heroin-induced leukoencephalopathies. J Neurol. 2019; 266(2): 316-329.
12.Hubner CB, Kornetsky C. Heroin, 6-acetylmorphine and morphine effects on threshold for rewarding and aversive brain stimulation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1992; 260(2): 562-567
13.Grant B, S Stinson F, Harford T. Grant BF, Stinson FS, Harford TC. Age at onset of alcohol use and DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence: a 12-year follow-up. J Subst Abuse. 2001;13:493-504. doi:10.1016/S0899-3289(01)00096-7
14.Zucker RA, Donovan JE, Masten AS, Mattson ME, Moss HB. Early developmental processes and the continuity of risk for underage drinking and problem drinking. Pediatrics. 2008;121 Suppl 4:S252-S272. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2243B
15.DiClemente CC, Fairhurst SK, Piotrowski NA. Self-efficacy and addictive behaviors. In: Self-Efficacy, Adaptation, and Adjustment: Theory, Research, and Application. The Plenum series in social/clinical psychology. New York, NY, US: Plenum Press; 1995:109-141.
16.Hill KG, Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Abbott RD, Guo J. Family influences on the risk of daily smoking initiation. J Adolesc Health Off Publ Soc Adolesc Med. 2005;37(3):202-210. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.08.014
17.Guo J, Hawkins JD, Hill KG, Abbott RD. Childhood and adolescent predictors of alcohol abuse and dependence in young adulthood. J Stud Alcohol. 2001;62(6):754-762.
18.Brook JS, Brook DW, Gordon AS, Whiteman M, Cohen P. The psychosocial etiology of adolescent drug use: a family interactional approach. Genet Soc Gen Psychol Monogr. 1990;116(2):111-267.
19.Duncan GJ, Wilkerson B, England P. Cleaning up their act: The effects of marriage and cohabitation on licit and illicit drug use. Demography. 2006;43(4):691-710. doi:10.1353/dem.2006.0032
20.Chassin L, Pitts SC, Prost J. Binge drinking trajectories from adolescence to emerging adulthood in a high-risk sample: predictors and substance abuse outcomes. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2002;70(1):67-78.
21.Sher KJ, Rutledge PC. Heavy drinking across the transition to college: predicting first-semester heavy drinking from precollege variables. Addict Behav. 2007;32(4):819-835. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.06.024.
22.Bond L, Butler H, Thomas L, et al. Social and school connectedness in early secondary school as predictors of late teenage substance use, mental health, and academic outcomes. J Adolesc Health Off Publ Soc Adolesc Med. 2007;40(4):357.e9-e18. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.10.013
23.Brook JS, Kessler RC, Cohen P. The onset of marijuana use from preadolescence and early adolescence to young adulthood. Dev Psychopathol. 1999;11(4):901-914
24.Herting JR, Guest AM. Components of satisfaction with local areas in the metropolis. Sociol Q. 1985;26(1):99-116. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1985.tb00218.x
25.Hawkins JD, Arthur MW, Catalano RF. Preventing substance abuse. Crime Justice. 1995;19:343-427. doi:10.1086/449234
26.Chalk R, Phillips DA. Youth Development and Neighborhood Influences: Challenges and Opportunities. National Academies Press; 1997
27.Bevilacqua L, Goldman D. Genes and addictions. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2009;85(4):359-361. doi:10.1038/clpt.2009.6
28.Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Mental and Substance Use Disorders. https://www.samhsa.gov/disorders. Published June 20, 2014. Accessed June 4, 2018.
29.Biederman J, Faraone SV, Monuteaux MC, Feighner JA. Patterns of alcohol and drug use in adolescents can be predicted by parental substance use disorders. Pediatrics. 2000;106(4):792-797.
30.Whitesell M, Bachand A, Peel J, Brown M. Familial, social, and individual factors contributing to risk for adolescent substance use. Journal of Addiction. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jad/2013/579310/ Published 2013. Accessed June 4, 2018
31.Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Mental and Substance Use Disorders. https://www.samhsa.gov/disorders. Published June 20, 2014. Accessed June 4, 2018.
32.Lynskey MT, Heath AC, Bucholz KK, Slutske WS, Madden PAF,Nelson EC, Statham DJ, Martin NG. Escalation of drug use in early onset cannabis users vs co-twin controls. JAMA 289: 427-33, 2003.
33.Squeglia LM, Jacobus J, Tapert SF. The influence of substance use on adolescent brain development. Clin Neurosci Soc ENCS. 2009;40(1):31-38.
34.Verebey K, Gold MS. From coca leaves to crack: the effects of dose and routes of administration in abuse liability. Psychiatr Annals 18:513–520, 1988
35.Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction-Drugs and the Brain(National Institute on Drug Abuse) July 2020
36.May 16, 2023/Dr. Anand Dugar/Cannabis Education, Medical Cannabis Educatiοn
37.Clinical Pharmacology, Toxicity, and Abuse Potential of Opioid David Vearrier MD, MPH, Oliver Grundmann MS, PhD, FCP First published: 15 August 2021
38.Brosιus J, Gentile N, Bonadio Pont F, Garcia Gongora JM, Gastι L, Esseiva P. Qualitative, quantitative and temporal study of cutting agents for cocaine and heroin over 9 years. Forensic Sci Int. 2015; 257: 307-313.
39.Cole C, Jones L, McVeigh J, Kicman A, Syed Q, Bellis MA. CUT: a guide to adulterants, bulking agents and other contaminants found in illicit drugs. Liverpool, UK: John Moores University; 2010
40.Brosιus J, Gentile N, Esseiva P. The cutting of cocaine and heroin: a critical review. Forensic Sci Int. 2016; 262: 73-83.
41.Lovrecic B, Lovrecic M, Gabrovec B, et al. Non-medical use of novel synthetic opioids: a new challenge to public health. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019; 16(2): 177-198.
42.Raffa RB, Pergolizzi JV, LeQuang JA, Taylor R, Colucci S, Annabi MH. The fentanyl family: a distinguished medical history tainted by abuse. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2018; 43(1): 154-158
43.Mounteney J, Giraudon I, Denissov G, Griffiths P. Fentanyls: Are we missing the signs? Highly potent and on the rise in Europe. Int J Drug Policy.2015; 26(7):626 631.
44.Hayes AG, Tyers MB. Determination of receptors that mediate opiate side effects in the mouse. Br J Pharmacol. 1983; 79(3): 721-72
45.Katselou M, Papoutsis I, Nikolaou P, Spiliopoulou C, Athanaselis S. AH-7921: the list of new psychoactive opioids is expanded. Forensic Toxicol. 2015; 33(2): 195-201.
46.Harper NJ, Veitch GB, Wibberley DG. 1-(3,4-Dichlorobenzamidomethyl)cyclohexyldimethylamine and related compounds as potential analgesics. J Med Chem. 1974; 17(11): 188-193.
47.World Health Organization. U-47700 Critical Review Report Agenda Item 4.1. https://www.who.int/medicines/access/controlled-substances/4.1_U-47700_CritReview.pdf. 2016. Accessed May 30, 2021
48.Siddiqi S, Verney C, Dargan P, Wood DM. Understanding the availability, prevalence of use, desired effects, acute toxicity and dependence potential of the novel opioid MT-45. Clin Toxicol. 2015; 53(1): 54-59
49.Helander A, Bδckberg M, Beck O. MT-45, a new psychoactive substance associated with hearing loss and unconsciousness. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2014; 52(8): 901-904
50.Helander A, Bradley M, Hasselblad A, et al. Acute skin and hair symptoms followed by severe, delayed eye complications in subjects using the synthetic opioid MT-45. Br J Dermatol. 2017; 176(4): 1021-1027.
51.Grund JP, Latypov A, Harris M. Breaking worse: the emergence of krokodil and excessive injuries among people who inject drugs in Eurasia. Int J Drug Policy. 2013; 24(4): 265-274
52.Alves EA, Grund J-PC, Afonso CM, Netto ADP, Carvalho F, Dinis-Oliveira RJ. The harmful chemistry behind krokodil (desomorphine) synthesis and mechanisms of toxicity. Forensic Sci Int. 2015; 249: 207-213.
53.Alves EA, Soares JX, Afonso CM, et al. The harmful chemistry behind “krokodil”: Street-like synthesis and product analysis. Forensic Sci Int. 2015; 257: 76-82.
54.Florez DHΒ, Dos Santos Moreira AM, da Silva PR, et al. Desomorphine (Krokodil): An overview of its chemistry, pharmacology, metabolism, toxicology and analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017; 173: 59-68.
55.Imam MZ, Kuo A, Ghassabian S, Smith MT. Progress in understanding mechanisms of opioid-induced gastrointestinal adverse effects and respiratory depression. Neuropharmacology. 2018; 131: 238-255
56.Raehal KM, Bohn LM. β-Arrestins: regulatory role and therapeutic potential in opioid and cannabinoid receptor-mediated analgesia. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 2014; 219: 427-443.
57.Conner KR, Wiegand TJ, Kaukeinen K, Gorodetsky R, Schult R, Heavey SC. Prescription-, illicit-, and self-harm opioid overdose cases treated in hospital. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2018; 79(6): 893-898.
58.Murray BP, Carpenter JE, Dunkley CA, et al. Seizures in tramadol overdoses reported in the ToxIC registry: predisposing factors and the role of naloxone. Clin Toxicol. 2019; 57(8): 692-696.
59.Marinella MA. Meperidine-induced generalized seizures with normal renal function. South Med J. 1997; 90(5): 556-558
60.Schiavon S, Hodgin K, Sellers A, et al. Medical, psychosocial, and treatment predictors of opioid overdose among high-risk opioid users. Addict Behav. 2018; 86: 51-55.
61.Torralva R, Janowsky A. Noradrenergic mechanisms in fentanyl-mediated rapid death explain failure of naloxone in the opioid crisis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2019; 371(2): 453-475
62.Ali M, Mujahid A, Bulathsinghala CP, Surani S. Cardiac arrhythmia secondary to loperamide abuse and toxicity. Cureus. 2020; 12(2): 1-4.
63.Elkalioubie A, Allorge D, Robriquet L, et al. Near-fatal tramadol cardiotoxicity in a CYP2D6 ultrarapid metabolizer. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2011; 67(8): 855-858.
64.Katz N, Mazer NA. The impact of opioids on the endocrine system. Clin J Pain. 2009; 25(2): 170-175.
65.Brennan MJ. The effect of opioid therapy on endocrine function. Am J Med. 2013; 126(3 Suppl 1): S12-S18.
66.Rose ME. Are prescription opioids Driving the opioid crisis? Assumptions vs facts. Pain Med. 2018; 19(4): 793-807.
67.Vandrey R, Dunn KE, Fry JA, Girling ER. A survey study to characterize use of Spice products (synthetic cannabinoids) Drug and alcohol dependence. 2012;120:238–41.
68.Izzo AA, Borrelli F, Capasso R, Di Marzo V, Mechoulam R. Non-psychotropic plant cannabinoids: new therapeutic opportunities from an ancient herb. Trends in pharmacological sciences. 2009;30:515–27. [PubMed] [Google Scholar
69.Niesink RJ, van Laar MW. Does Cannabidiol Protect Against Adverse Psychological Effects of THC? Frontiers in psychiatry. 2013;4:130. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
70.Karila L, et al. Acute and long-term effects of cannabis use: a review. Current pharmaceutical design. 2014;20:4112–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
71.Johns A. Psychiatric effects of cannabis. The British journal of psychiatry: the journal of mental science. 2001;178:116–22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
72.Hall W. What has research over the past two decades revealed about the adverse health effects of recreational cannabis use? Addiction. 2015;110:19–35. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
73.Hartman RL, Huestis MA. Cannabis effects on driving skills. Clinical chemistry. 2013;59:478–92.
74.Spaderna M, Addy PH, D’Souza DC. Spicing things up: synthetic cannabinoids. Psychopharmacology. 2013;228:525–40
75.Van Amsterdam J, Brunt T, van den Brink W. The adverse health effects of synthetic cannabinoids with emphasis on psychosis-like effects. Journal of psychopharmacology. 2015
76.Volkow ND, Baler RD, Compton WM, Weiss SR. Adverse health effects of marijuana use. The New England journal of medicine. 2014;370:2219–27.
77.Hall W, Degenhardt L. The adverse health effects of chronic cannabis use. Drug testing and analysis. 2014;6:39–45. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
78.Cadet JL, Bisagno V, Milroy CM. Neuropathology of substance use disorders. Acta neuropathologica. 2014;127:91–107.
79.Volkow ND, et al. Decreased dopamine brain reactivity in marijuana abusers is associated with negative emotionality and addiction severity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2014;111:E3149–56. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
80.Castaneto MS, Gorelick DA, Desrosiers NA, Hartman RL, Pirard S, Huestis MA. Synthetic cannabinoids: epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. Drug and alcohol dependence. 2014;144:12–41.
81.Le Strat Y, Dubertret C, Le Foll B. Impact of age at onset of cannabis use on cannabis dependence and driving under the influence in the United States. Accident; analysis and prevention. 2015;76:1–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
82.Cannabinoid abuse and addiction: Clinical and preclinical findings Leigh V. Panlilio, Steven R. Goldberg,† and Zuzana Justinova. 2016 Jun
83.AIHW: Illicit drug use Web article Last updated: 29 Feb 2024
84.Addiction Center. December 7, 2023
85.NIDA, (2016) Facing Addiction in America: The Surgeon General's Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health
86.Alhammad M, Aljedani R, Alsaleh M, Atyia N, Alsmakh M, Alfaraj A, Alkhunaizi A, Alwabari J, Alzaidi Family, Individual, and Other Risk Factors Contributing to Risk of Substance Abuse in Young Adults: A Narrative Review. Cureus. 2022 Dec 8;14(12):e32316. doi: 10.7759/cureus.32316. PMID: 36505959; PMCID: PMC9731175.
87.Justin C. Strickland, Matthew W. Johnson: Advances in Pharmacology, Advances in Pharmacology Chapter Four - Human behavioral pharmacology of psychedelics Volume 93, 2022, Pages 105-132
88.NIDA. 2022, September 29. What are inhalants?. Retrieved from https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/inhalants/what-are-inhalants on 2024, April 1
89.Max M. Houck, Jay A. Siegel, Chapter 13 - Illicit Drugs, Editor(s): Max M. Houck, Jay A. Siegel, Fundamentals of Forensic Science (Third Edition), Academic Press, 2015, Pages 315-352, ISBN 9780128000373, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800037-3.00013
90.Rauschert, C., Seitz, N., Olderbak, S., Pogarell, O., Dreischulte, T., & Kraus, L. (2022). Abuse of non-opioid analgesics in germany: prevalence and associations among self-medicated users. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.864389
91.Smith, S. M., Dart, R. C., Katz, N., Paillard, F., Adams, E. H., Comer, S. D., … & Dworkin, R. H. (2013). Classification and definition of misuse, abuse, and related events in clinical trials: acttion systematic review and recommendations. Pain, 154(11), 2287-2296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2013.05.053
92.Candiotti, K. A. and Gitlin, M. C. (2010). Review of the effect of opioid-related side effects on the undertreatment of moderate to severe chronic non-cancer pain: tapentadol, a step toward a solution?. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 26(7), 1677-1684. https://doi.org/10.1185/03007995.2010.483941
93.Alhammad M, Aljedani R, Alsaleh M, Atyia N, Alsmakh M, Alfaraj A, Alkhunaizi A, Alwabari J, Alzaidi M. Family, Individual, and Other Risk Factors Contributing to Risk of Substance Abuse in Young Adults: A Narrative Review. Cureus. 2022 Dec 8;14(12):e32316. doi: 10.7759/cureus.32316. PMID: 36505959; PMCID: PMC9731175.
94.NIDA. 2022, March 22. Drugs and the Brain. Retrieved from https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drugs-brain on 2024, July 18
95.Saini, Gurpreet Kaur; Gupta, N. D.1; Prabhat, K. C.2. Drug addiction and periodontal diseases. Journal of Indian Society of Periodontology 17(5):p 587-591, Sep–Oct 2013. | DOI: 10.4103/0972-124X.119277
96.Dyer, A., et al. (2013). Cardiovascular complications of drug abuse. *Heart*, 99(14), 1031-1037. doi:10.1136/heartjnl-2012-302561
97.Inhalants, opioids, and other substances can cause respiratory depression or damage to the lungs, leading to chronic respiratory diseases (Schmidt et al., 2019).
98.Des Jarlais, D. C., et al. (2018). The impact of needle sharing on HIV and hepatitis C transmission among people who inject drugs: A review. *International Journal of Drug Policy*, 62, 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.01.001
99.Volkow, N. D., et al. (2016). Neuropsychopharmacology: A review of the neurobiological effects of drugs of abuse. *Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology*, 41(1), 1-15.doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.06.018
100.McHugh, R. K., & Weiss, R. D. (2013). Alcohol and drug use disorders: A review of the neurobiological effects. *Psychiatric Clinics of North America*, 36(2), 235-248. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2013.01.001
101.Baler, R. D., & Volkow, N. D. (2006). Drug addiction: The neurobiology of behavior and decision-making. *Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment*, 31(3), 231-239. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2006.06.001
102.Kessler, R. C., et al. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. *Archives of General Psychiatry*, 62(6), 593-602. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593
103.Wilcox, H. C., et al. (2010). Substance use disorders and suicide: A review of the literature. *Psychiatric Services*, 61(3), 227-232. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.61.3.227